The global 4 Bennett et al – Environmental Justice in the Ocean nature of the disposal of pollution and other wastes in the ocean reveals patterns of environmental racism, with the dumping of wastes and the breaking of ships often occurring in the lower income countries in Africa and Asia (Frey, 2015; Okafor-Yarwood & Adewumi, 2020; Wan et al., 2021). [...] The ocean has steadily warmed and at a greater rate than the atmosphere, influencing nutrient cycling, decreasing primary production, shifting the geographic distribution of organisms, leading to range expansions of tropical species, and impacting the growth and reproduction of fish stocks (Bindoff et al., 2019; du Pontavice et al., 2020; Morley et al., 2018; Pinsky et al., 2020; Poloczanska et al. [...] Shifts in the abundance, productivity and location of fish stocks and shellfish from warming oceans and acidification are affecting fisheries jobs, revenues, and food security for many coastal populations (Cheung et al., 2010; Doney et al., 2020; Fernandes et al., 2017; Lam, Cheung, Reygondeau, et al., 2016; Narita et al., 2012; Tigchelaar et al., 2021). [...] Rising sea levels, combined with increased storm and flooding events, are harming community infrastructure, housing and health in both rural areas and urban centers (Heberger et al., 2011; Liwenga et al., 2019; Rahimi et al., 2020; Ryan et al., 2016) and leading to forced retreat or migration away from the ocean (Ahmed & Eklund, 2021; Dannenberg et al., 2019; Dasgupta et al., 2022; Hauer, 2017; Sc. [...] Nations in Africa, Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands that are near the Equator and with a high reliance on fisheries may be both more exposed and more susceptible to livelihood and food security impacts (Asch et al., 2017; Holbrook et al., 2021; Lauria et al., 2018; Tigchelaar et al., 9 Bennett et al – Environmental Justice in the Ocean 2021).
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